El control obrero de la producción de máquinas en los Estados Unidos (Siglo XIX)
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Tomado de Labor History.
Esta investigación fue hecha gracias a una ayuda financiera del John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Research.
Frederick Winslow Taylor, The Principies of Scientific Management, New York, 1967, pp. 31-2.
William D. Haywood y Frank Bohn, Industrial Socialism, Chicago, s/f, p. 25.
Herbert G. Gutman, "Work, Culture and Society in Industrializing America, 1815-1919", American Historical Review, núm. 78, junio 1973, pp. 531-88; E.P. Thompson, "Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism, Past and Present, núm. 38, Diciembre 1967, pp. 56-97; E.J. Hobsbawm, "Custom, Wages and Workload in Nineteenth Century Industry", en Hobsbawm, Labouring Men, London, 1964 pp. 334-70; Gregory Kealy, "Artisans Respond to Industrialism: Shoemakers, Shoe Factories and the Knights of St. Crispin in Toronto, Historical Papers, Canadian Historical Association, Junio 1973, pp. 137-57; Paul G. Faler, "Workingmen, Mechanics and Social Change: Lynn, Massachusetts, 1800-1869, disertación para Ph. D no publicada, University of Wisconsin, 1971; Bruce G. Laurie, "The Working People of Philadelphia, 1827-1853; disertación para Ph. D no publicada, University of Pittsburgh, 1971; David Montgomery, "The Shuttle and the Cross: Weavers and Artisans in the Kensington Riots of 1844", Journal of Social History, núm. 5, Primavera de 1972, pp. 411-46.
Los asuntos de las generaciones industriales han sido tratados en la historia de norteamérica en términos de dirigentes. Ver: David Montgomery, Beyond Equality: Labor and the Radical Republicans 1862-1872, New York, 1967, pp. 197-229; Warren R. Van Tine, The Making of the Labor Bureaucrat: Union Leadership in the United States, 1870-1920, Amherst, 1973, pp. 1-32. Para un análisis social mejor fundamentado ver Leopold H. Haimson, "The Russian Workers' Movement on the Eve of the First World War", trabajo no publicado, presentado en la convención de la America Historical Association, 1972; Michelle Perrot, Les Ouvriers en grève: France 1871-1890, 2 vols., París, 1974, I, pp. 312-95.
James, J. Davis, The Iron Puddler: My life in the Rolling Mills and What Came of It, Indianapolis, 1922, p. 91.
Ibid. pp. 85, 92-3, 114, 227. El asunto sobre la promoción de los ayudantes de los pudeladores de los hornos provocó huelgas de los ayudantes en contra de los pudeladores en los años setenta. Ver John H. Ashworth, The Helper and American Trade Unions, Baltimore, 1915, pp. 83, 93-4.
Minute Books, Lodge núm. 11, Rollers, Roughers, Catchers and Hookers Union, Columbus, Ohio, Julio 14 1873, Abril 28 1876. William Martin Papers, University of Pittsburgh Library.
Ernest Mandel, ed., Contrôle ouvrier, conseils ouvriers, autogestion, anthologie, París, 1970, pp. 192-7. También ver Carter Goodrich, The Frontier of Control, New York, 1921.
Frederick Winslow Taylor, "Shop Management", Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, núm. 24, 1903, pp. 1337-456; U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Eleventh Annual Report, "Regulation and Restriction of Output", Washington D.C., 1904.
United Kingdom, Parliament, Second Report of the Commisioner Appointed to Inquire into the Organization and Rules of Trades Unions and Other Associations, Parliamentary Sessional Paper, 1867, XXXII c3893, p. 2; "Restriction of Output", p. 243.
"Restriction of Output", pp. 198-9.
U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations, Final Report and Testimony Submitted to Congress by the Commission on Industrial Relations, 64avo Congreso, lera. sesión, Washington D.C., 1915, pp. 893-4.
Henry L. Gantt, Work, Wages, and Profits, New York, 1919, p. 186.
"Restriction of Output", p. 18.
P.A. Stein a Machinists' Monthly Journal, núm. 15, Abril 1903, p. 294.
Ver "What One Trade Has Done", John Swintons' Paper, Marzo 23, 1884. Cfr. Peter N. Stearns, "Adaptation to Industrialization: German Workers as a Test Case", Central European History, núm. 3, 1970, pp. 303-31.
Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor, Report of the Bureau of Statistics of Labor for 1871, pp. 590-1.
Associated Brotherhood of Iron and Steel Heaters, Rollers and Roughers of the United States, "Report on Communications. The Year's Term Having Closed July 10th, 1875", 25 Febrero 1875. Para más detalles sobre las reglas respecto a "trabajo sucio" y a "un hombre-una máquina", ver Amalgamated Association of Iron Steel Workers, Proceedings, 1877, pp. 52 y 75; "Restriction of Output", pp. 101-5 y 226-7.
Sobre los orígenes del "sweating system" en el ramo de la costura, ver Conrad Carl testimony, U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Education and Labor, Report of the Committee of the Senate upon the Relations between Labor and Capital, 3 vols., Washington, D. C., 1885, I, pp. 413-21; Louis Lorwin, The Women's Garment Workers, New York, 1924, pp. 12-23.
Ashworth, op. cit., pp. 67-72; Robert A. Christie, Empire in Wood: A History of the Carpenter's Union, Ithaca, N.Y., 1956, cap. 5; Paul Worthman, "Black Workers and Labor Unions in Birmingham, Alabama, 1897-1904", Labor History, núm. 10, Verano 1969, pp. 374-407; Jacob H. Hollander y George E. Barnett, Studies in American Trade Unionism, New York, 1912, pp. 147-8; Iron Age, núm. 91, 30 Enero 1913, p. 334; Machinist's Monthly Journal, núm. 16, Abril 1904, p. 321.
Cfr. Benson Soffer, "A Theory of Trade Union Development: The Role of the 'Autonomous' Workman", Labor History, núm. 1, Primavera 1960, 141-163.
Los tipógrafos aún llaman a su reglamento el Libro de Leyes. Ver Selig Perlman, A Theory of the Labor Movement, New York, 1928, pp. 262-72; Seymour Martin Lipset, Martin A. Trow y James S. Coleman, Union Democracy, Garden City, N.Y., 1972, pp. 160-226.
"Restriction of Output", pp. 101-8; Charles B. Going, "The Labour Question in England and America", Engeneering Magazine, núm. 19, Mayo 1900, pp. 161-76; Hollander and Barnett, op. cit., pp. 109-52.
By Laws of the Window Glass Workers, L.A. 300, Knights of Labor, Pittsburgh, 1899, pp. 26-36.
"What One Trade Has Done", John Swinton's Paper, 23 Marzo 1884.
Fred Reid, "Keir Hardie's Conversion to Socialism", en Essays in Labour History 1886-1923, Asa Briggs y John Saville eds., London, 1971, p. 29. También ver Montgomery, Beyond Equality..., pp. 142-53; David A. McCabe, The Standard Rate in American Trade Unions, Baltimore, 1912.
Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Session of the Iron Molder's International Union, Philadelphia, 1867, pp. 10, 14, 40-1; Ashworth, op. cit., pp. 36, 38, 68.
Ver la nota 20.
Samuel Gompers, "The Strike and Its Lessons", en A Momentous Question: The Respective Attitudes of Labor and Capital, John Swinton, ed., Philadelphia y Chicago, 1895, p. 311.
Ver Phillip T. Silvia Jr., "The Spindle City: Labor, Politics and Religion in Fall River, Massachusetts, 1870-1905", disertación para Ph. D. no publicada, Fordham, University, 1973, cap. 3; John Amsden y Stephen Brier, "Coal Miners on Strike: The Transformation of Strike Demands and the Formation of the National Union in U.S. Coal Industry, 1881-1894", en The Journal of Interdisciplinary History; Andrew Roy, A History of the Coal Miners, Columbus, Ohio, 1902, pp. 220-42.
Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor, Report, 1871, p. 55.
Ver Cuadro.
John H. Griffin, Strikes: A Study in Quantitative Economics, New York, 1939, p. 107. Una espléndida discusión sobre el creciente papel del cálculo en las huelgas del siglo XIX puede encontrarse en Perrot, op. cit., I, pp. 101-80; 11, pp. 424-85 y pp. 574-606.
Augusta E. Galster, The Labor Movement in the Shoe Industry, with Special Reference to Philadelphia, New York, 1924, pp. 49-57.
Ver por ejemplo, el acuerdo entre Carpet Weaver's National Assembly No. 126, Knights of Labor y E.S. Higgins & Co., en New York Bureau of Statistics of Labor, Fourth Annual Report, 1886, Albany, 1887 p. 256. Se necesita mucho más investigación sobre las demandas de los obreros no calificados, pero nótese el agudo contraste en los tipos de las demandas presentadas por los artesanos y obreros, cuando cada grupo se encontró por separado durante la huelga de Bethlehm Steel U.S. Congress, Senate, Report on the Strike at the Bethlehem Steel Works, Senate Decoment Núm. 521, Washington D.C., 1910, pp. 26-32.
Abraham Bisno, Abraham Bisno, Union Pioneer, Madison, Wis., 1967, pp. 77-8 y 135-7; John W. Hayes Papers, Catholic University of America, LA 7507, LA 2567, LA 10353. La cita es de Gustive Cytron de John Hayes, Nov. 1, 1893, Hayes Papers, LA 10353. Ver Ashworth, op. cit., sobre la dominación de los sindicatos de ayudantes por las asambleas de artesanos.
Galster, op. cit., pp. 55-7. Ver también Alan C. Dawley, "The Artisan Response to the Factory System: Lynn Massachusetts, in the Nineteenth Century", disertación para Ph. D. no publicada, Harvard University, 1971; Kealy, op. cit., pp. 145-7; James M. Morris, "The Cincinnati Shoemakers Lockout of 1888", Labor History, núm. 13, Otoño 1972, pp. 505-19.
Fred S. Hall, Sympathetic Strikes and Sympathetic Lockouts, New York, Columbia University Studies in History, Economics and Public Law, núm. 26, 1898, p. 29.
New York Bureau of Labor Statistics, Report, 1890, pp. 936-49; Report, 1891, Part II, pp. 732-45; Report, 1892, pp. 124-39.
Eugene Debs, "Labor Strikes and Their Lessons", en Swinton, Momentous Question, pp. 324-5.
U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Twenty-First Annual Report, Washington, D.C., 1906, pp. 21-22, 33-4 y 81-2. Los cálculos de los porcentajes de las huelgas solidarias en Nueva York en la rama de la construcción son míos, del New York Bureau of Labor Statistics data.
Hall, op. cit., p. 33.
E. Lavasseur, The American Workman, Baltimore, 1900, pp. 237-9; Hall, op. cit., pp. 102-3. Las citas de la AFL están en Hall, pp. 102-3.
Hollander and Barnet, op. cit., pp. 226-31. La cita está en la p. 226. El acuerdo del ramo está reproducido en las pp. 230-1.
John R. Commons, Trade Unionism and Labor Problems, First Series, Boston, 1905, pp. 66-7; Philip Taft, The A.F. of L. in the Time of Gompers, New York, 1957, pp. 25, 29,251. Sobre las huelgas solidarias en Nueva York, ver la nota 39.
Hall, op. cit., pp. 36-51 y 70-8; John Cumbler, "Labor, Capital and Community: The Struggle for Power", Labor History, núm. 15, Verano 1974, pp. 395-415; Almont Lindsay, The Pullman Strike, Chicago, 1942, pp. 122-46 y 203-13; Edwin E. Witte, The Government in Labor Disputes, Nueva York y Londres, 1932, pp. 26-31 y 61-82; Gerald G. Eggert, Railroad Labor Disputes: The Beginnings of Federal Strike Policy, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1967, pp. 81-191; United States Workingmen's Amalgamated Council of New Orleans, et. al., 54 Fed. 994, 1893; Florence Peterson, Strikes in the United States, 1880-1936, Washington, D.C., U.S. Dept. of Labor Bulletin No. 651, Agosto, 1937, p. 34.
Hall, op. cit., pp. 37-8.
Norman J. Ware, The Labor Movement in the United States, 1860-1895, New York y Londres, 1929, p. XII.
Clarence E. Bonnett, Employers Associations in the United States: A Study of typical Associations, Nueva York, 1922; Commons, Trade Unionism and Labor Problems; "Restriction of Output".
Ver Van Tne, op. cit., pp. 57-112; Mark Pearlman, The Machinists: A New Study in American Trade Unionism, Washington, D.C., 1956, pp. 20-36 y 48-50.
Taylor, Principies of Scientific Management, p. 83.
F .J. Roethlisberger y W. J. Dickson, Management and the Worker: Technical vs. Social Organization in an Industrial Plant, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Business Research Studies, Núm. 9, 1934, p. 16-7. Cfr. Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century, Nueva York y Londres, 1974.
Para interpretaciones básicamente tecnológicas de la administración científica, véase David Landes, The Unbound Prometheus, Cambridge, 1969, pp. 290-326; Samuel Haber, Efficiency and Uplift: Scientific Management in the Progressive Era, 1890-1920, Chicago y Londres, 1964: Hugh G. J. Aitken, Taylorism at Watertown Arsenal: Scientific Management in Action, 1908-1915, Cambridge, Mass., 1960.
U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Hearings befare the Special Committee of the House of Representatives to Investigate the Taylor and Other Systems of Shop Management, 3 vols., Washington, D.C., 1912, p. 1397.
Louis Brandeis, "Brief before the I.C.C., January 3, 1911", en Selected Articles on Employment Management, Daniel Bloomfield ed., Nueva York, 1922, p. 127.
John R. Commons et. al., Industrial Government, Nueva York, 1921, p. 267.
Ver Arthur Gleason, "The Shop Stewards and Their Significance", Survey, Núm. 41, 4 Enero, 1919, pp. 417-22: Carter Goodrich, "Problems of Worker's Control", Locomotive Engineers Journal, núm. 62, Mayo 1923, pp. 365-7 y 415; Evans Clark, "The Industry is Ours", Socialist Review, núm. 9, Julio 1920, pp. 59-62: David Montgomery, "The 'New Unionism' and the Transformation of Worker's Consciousness in America, 1909-1922", Journal of Social History, núm. 7, Verano 1974, pp. 509-29.
