Muerte al filo de la humanidad: algunas reflexiones en torno a la conciencia y los orígenes del pensamiento religioso
Palabras clave:
muerte, origen de la religión, evolución humana, comportamiento animal, funerariaResumen
A partir del análisis de múltiples evidencias etológicas y arqueológicas, se plantea establecer un diálogo entre las clásicas propuestas antropológicas sobre la conciencia de muertecomo motor del pensamiento religioso y los más recientes estudios sobre la conducta de homínidos fósiles y primates contemporáneos. Rastreando los más tempranos indicios de comportamiento simbólico, llegamos a la conclusión de que, lejos de haber existido una revolución cognitiva, la conciencia de muerte se nos presenta como una suerte de gradiente que oscila entre el mero reconocimiento perceptual y la elaboración de complejos conceptos. Se plantea incluso que algunos de los hábitos de los grandes simios, como las actitudes compasivas y el traslado de cadáveres, parecen haberse prolongado a lo largo de la evolución humana hasta tener eco en los muy variados procesos funerarios de las poblaciones actuales. De modo que, si la muerte hubiera tenido el rol germinal que los precursores de la antropología le atribuían, habríamos de considerar que lo religioso no necesariamente es una característica exclusiva del hombre actual.
Descargas
Citas
• Acheampong, Samuel A. y Mitchell Bev.
“Quiescence in the Colorado Potato Beetle,
Leptinotarsa decemlineata”. Entomologia Experimentalis
et Applicata, 82 (1): 83-89.
• Allen, Collin y Marc D. Hauser
“Concept Attribution in Nonhuman Animals:
Theoretical and Methodological Problems in
aAribing Complex Mental Processes”. Philosophy of
Science, 58: 221-240.
• Altmann, Stuart A. y Jeanne Altmann
Baboon Ecology: African Field Research.
Chicago, University of Chicago Press.
• Anderson, James R.
“A Primatological Perspective on Death”.
American Journal of Primatology, 73: 410-414.
• Anderson, James R., Alasdair Gillies y Louise C. Lock
“Pan Thanatology”. Current Biology, 20 (8):
-351.
• Antón, Susan C.
“Homo: Who, When, and Where”. Current
Anthropology, 53 (S6): S278-S298.
• Apud, Ismael
“Magia, ciencia y religión en antropología
social”. Nómadas. Revista crítica de ciencias
sociales y jurídicas, 30, recuperado de http://www.
redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=18120143021
• Arsuaga, Juan Luis e Ignacio Martínez
La especie elegida. Madrid, Temas de Hoy.
• Arsuaga, Juan Luis, Ignacio Martínez, Alejandra
Gracia, José Miguel Carretero, Carlos Lorenzo, Nuria
García, Ana Isabel Ortega
“Sima de los Huesos (Sierra de Atapuerca,
Spain), The Site”. Journal of Human Evolution, 33:
-127.
• Bagemihl, Bruce
Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality
and Natural Diversity. Nueva York, St. Martin’s
Press.
• Bercovitch, Fred B.
“Giraffe Cow Reaction to the Death of her
Newborn Calf”. African Journal of Ecology, 51:
-379.
• Bertrand, Mirelle
The Behavioral Reportoire of the Stumptail
Macaque. Basilea, Karger.
• Beux dos Santos, Maurício, Mauro Cesar Lamim
Martins de Oliveira, Laura Verrastro, Alexandro
Marques Tozetti.
“Playing Dead to Stay Alive: Death-feigning
in Liolaemus occipitalis (Squamata: Liolaemidae)”.
Biota Neotrop., 10 (4): 361-364.
• Binford, Lewis R., Nancy M. Stone, Jean S. Aigner,
Anna K. Behrensmeyer, Gary Haynes, John W. Olsen,
Lawrence C. Todd, You Yu-Zhu.
“Zhoukoudian: A Closer Look [and Comments
and Reply]”. Current Anthropology, 27(5):
-475.
• Biro, Dora, Tatyana Humle, Kathelijne Koops,
Claudia Sousa, Misato Hayashi, Tetsuro Matsuzawa
“Chimpanzee Mothers at Bossou, Guinea,
Carry the Mummified Remains of their Dead
Infants”. Current Biology, 20(8): 351-352.
• Boesch, Christophe y Boesch-Achermann Hedwige
The Chimpanzees of the Taï Forest. Behavioural
Ecology and Evolution. Oxford, Oxford University
Press.
• Bonmatí, Alejandro, Asier Gómez-Olivencia, Juan
Luis Arsuaga, José Miguel Carretero, Ana García,
Ignacio Martínez, Carlos Lorenzo
“El caso de Elvis el viejo de la Sima de los
Huesos”. Dendra Médica. Revista de Humanidades,
(2): 138-146.
• Burghardt, Gordon M. y Harry W. Greene
“Predator Simulation and Duration of Death
Feigning in Neonate Hognose Snakes”. Animal
Behaviour, 36(6): 1842-1844.
• Carbonell, Eudald, Isabel Cáceres, Marina Lozano,
Palmira Saladié, Jordi Rosell, Carlos Lorenzo, Josep
Vallverdú, Rosa Huguet, Antoni Canals, José María
Bermúdez de Castro
“Cultural Cannibalism as a Paleoeconomic
System in the European Lower Pleistocene”. Current
Anthropology, 51(4): 539-549.
• Carter, Kerryn
“Interesting Giraffe Behaviour in Etosha
National Park”. Giraffa, 5(1): 14-15.
• Cohen, Jon
Almost Chimpanzee. Searching for what
Makes Us Human in Rain Forest, Labs and Zoos.
Nueva York, Times Books.
• Connor, Richard C., Janet Mann, Peter L. Tyack,
Whitehead Hal
“Social Evolution in Toothed Whales”. Trends
in Ecology and Evolution, 13: 228-232.
• Corbey, Raymond
The Metaphysics of Apes: Negotiating the
Animal-human Boundary, Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press.
• Cowgill, Ursula M.
“Death in Perodicticus”. Primates, 13:
-256.
• Cyrulnik, Boris
Del gesto a la palabra. La etología de la
comunicación en los seres vivos, Barcelona, Gedisa.
• Davenport, Lisa C.
“Aid to a Declining Matriarch in the Giant
Otter (Pteronura brasiliensis)”. PLOS One, 5(6): 1-6.
• Dennell, Robin W.
“The Solo (Ngandong) Homo Erectus Assemblage:
A Taphonomic Assessment”. Archaeology in
Oceania, 40: 81-90.
• Descartes, René
Las pasiones del alma, Madrid, Biblioteca
Nueva.
• Donovan, James M. y H. Edwin Anderson
Anthropology and Law, Nueva York, Berghahn
Books.
• Douglas-Hamilton Iain, Shivani Bhalla, George
Wittemyer, Fritz Vollrath
“Behavioural Reactions of Elephants towards
a Dying and Deceased Matriarch”. Applied Animal
Behaviour Science, 100(1-2): 87-102.
• Durkheim, Emile
Les formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse,
París, Presses Universitaires de France.
• Engh, Anne L., Jacinta C. Beehner, Thore J. Bergman,
Patricia L. Whitten, Rebekah R. Hoffmeier,
Robert M. Seyfarth, Dorothy L. Cheney
“Behavioural and Hormonal Responses to
Predation in Female Chacma Baboons (Papio
hamadryas ursinus)”. Proceedings of the Royal
Society B, 273: 707-712.
• Evans-Pritchard Edward Evan
. Las teorías de la religión primitiva, Madrid,
Siglo XXI.
• Fashing, Peter J. y Nga Nguyen
“Behavior toward the Dying, Diseased, or
Disabled Among Animals and its Relevance to
Paleopathology”. International Journal of Paleopathology,
: 128-129.
• Fashing, Peter J., Nga Nguyen y Norman J. Fashing
“Behavior of Geladas and other Endemic
Wildlife during a Desert Locust Outbreak at Guassa,
Ethiopia: Ecological and Conservation implications”.
Primates, 51: 193-197.
• Franco, Francisco
“Algunas consideraciones sobre la religión en
Tylor y Lévi-Bruhl”. Anuario Grhial, 1: 17-46.
• Francq, Edward N.
“Behavioral Aspects of Feigned Death in the
Opossum Didelphis Marsupialis”. American
Midland Naturalist, 81(2): 556-568.
• Freud, Sigmund
El porvenir de una ilusión, recuperado de
http://www.elortiba.org el 17 de febrero de 2015.
• Freud, Sigmund
Tótem y tabú. Madrid, Alianza.
• Fustel de Coulanges, Numa Denis
The Ancient City. A Study on the Religion,
Laws and Institutions of Greece and Rome, recuperado
de http://socserv.socsci.mcmaster.ca/econ/
ugcm/3ll3/fustel/AncientCity.pdf el 17 de febrero de
• Gargaglioni, Luciane Helena, Aparecida Pereira y
Anette Hoffmann
“Basal Midbrain Modulation of Tonic Immobility
in the Toad Bufo paracnemis”. Physiology &
Behavior, 72 (3): 297-303.
• Gargett, Robert H.
“A Response to Hovers, Kimbel, and Rak’s
Argument for the Purposeful Burial of Amud 7”.
Journal of Human Evolution, 39: 261-266.
• Goodall, Jane
The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of
Behaviour. Cambridge, Harvard University Press.
• Greene, Harry W.
“Antipredator Mechanisms in Reptiles”. En
Carl Gans y Raymond B. Huey (eds.), Biology of the
Reptilia. Vol. 16 (pp. 1-152). Nueva York, Alan L.
Riss (Ecology B. Defense and Life History).
• Grün, Rainer y Chris B. Stringer
“Tabun Revisited: Revised ESR Chronology
and New ESR and U-series Analyses of Dental
Material from Tabun C1”. (2000). Journal of Human
Evolution, 39: 601-612
• Harris, Marvin
Nuestra especie. Madrid, Alianza.
• Hayes, Keith J. y Catherine H. Nissen
“Higher Mental Functions of a Home-raised
Chimpanzee”. En Allan M. Schrier, Harry F. Harlow
y Fred Stollnitz (eds). Behaviour of Non-human
Primates. Vol. 4 (pp. 50-115). Nueva York, Academic
Press.
• Holdcroft, David y Harry Lewis
“Memes, Minds and Evolution”. Philosophy,
(292): 161-182.
• Hoppitt, William J.E., Gillian R. Brown, Rachel
Kendal, Luke Rendell, Alex Thornton, Mike M.
Webster y Kevin N. Laland
“Lessons from Animal Teaching”. Trends in
Ecology & Evolution, 23 (9): pp. 486-493.
• Hovers, Erella, Shimon Ilani, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Bernard
Vandermeersch
“An Early Case of Color Symbolism: Ochre
Use by Modern Humans in Qafzeh Cave”. Current
Anthropology, 44 (4): 491-522.
• Johanson, Donald C.
“Lucy, Thirty Years Later: An Expanded
View of Australopithecus afarensis”. Journal of
Anthropological Research, 60 (4): 465-486.
• Johanson, Donald, Taieb Maurice y Coopens Yves
“Pliocene Hominids from the Hadar Formation,
Ethiopia (1973-1977): Stratigraphic, Chronologic,
and Paleoenvironmental Contexts, with Notes
on Hominid Morphology and Systematics”. American
Journal of Physical Anthropology, 57: 373-402.
• Joordens, Josephine, Francesco d’Errico, Frank P.
Wesselingh, Stephen Munro, John de Vos, Jakob
Wallinga, Christina Ankjærgaard, Tony Reimann, Jan
R. Wijbrans, Klaudia F. Kuiper, Herman J. Mücher,
Hélène Coqueugniot, Vincent Prié, Ineke Joosten,
Bertil van Os, Anne S. Schulp, Michel Panuel, Victoria
van der Haas, Wim Lustenhouwer, John J. G. Reijmer
y Wil Roebroeks.
“Homo Erectus at Trinil on Java Used Shells
for Tool Production and Engraving”. Nature, 10,
Research letter.
• Koeniswald, Gustav Heinrich Ralph von
“Introduction”. Anthropological Papers of the
American Museum of Natural History, 43: 221-221.
• Koutamanis, Dafne
“The Place of the Neanderthal dead. Multiple
Burial Sites and Mortuary Space in the Middle
Paleolithic of Eurasia”. Tesis de maestría en prehistoria,
Universidad de Leiden, Leiden.
• Latour, Bruno
We Have Never Been Modern. Cambridge,
Harvard University Press Leakey, Mary D.
“Discoveries at Laetoli in Northern Tanzania”.
Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 92 (2):
pp. 81-86.
• Leuba, James H. y Bryn Mawr
“The Psychological Origin of Religion”. The
Monist, 9 (1): pp. 27-35.
• Lévy Bruhl, Lucien
La mentalidad primitiva. Buenos Aires,
Ediciones Leviatán.
• Li Jin-Fan, Yu-Chao He, Zhi-pang Huang, Shuang-
Jin Wang, Zuo-Fu Xiang, Juan-Jun Zhao, Wen Xiao y
Liang-Wei Cui
“Birth Seasonality and Pattern in Black-andwhite
Snub-nosed Monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti)
at Mt. Lasha, Yunnan”. En Dong wu xue yan jiu
(Zoological research), 35(6): 474-484.
• Lumley, Marie-Antoinette de, Jacques-Marie
Bardintzeff, Philippe Bienvenue, Jean-Baptiste Bilcot,
Guy Flamenbaum, Christophe Guy, Michel Julien,
Henry de Lumley, Jean-Philippe Nabot, Christian
Perrenoud, Olivier Provitina, Martine Tourasse
“Impact probable du volcanisme sur le décès
des homminidés de Dmanissi”. Paléontologie
humaine et prehistoire, 7: 61-79.
• Malinowski, Bronislaw
Magia, ciencia y religión. México, Planeta-
Agostini.
• Marx, Karl
Crítica de filosofía del Estado de Hegel (ed.
De Ángel Prior). Madrid, Biblioteca Nueva.
• Matsuzawa, Tetsuro
Jokro: The Death of an Infant Chimpanzee
(DVD con folleto asociado). Kyoto, Primate Research
Institute.
• McComb, Karen, Lucy Baker y Cynthia Moss
“African Elephants Show High Levels of
Interest in the Skulls and Ivory of their Own
Species”. Biology Letters, 2(1): 26-28.
• McGraw, Scott W., Catherine Cooke y Susanne
Shultz
“Primate Remains from African Crowned
Eagle (Stephanoaetus coronatus) Nests in Ivory
Coast’s Tai Forest: Implications for Primate Predation
and Early Hominid Taphonomy in South
Africa”. American Journal of Physical Anthropology,
: 151-165.
• Mellars, Paul
The Neanderthal Legacy: An Archaeological
Perspective from Western Europe, Princeton,
Princeton University Press.
• Mendoza Straffon, Larissa
“Art in the Making. The Evolutionary Origins
of Visual Art as a Communication Signal”. Tesis de
doctorado. Centre for the Arts and Society, Leiden
University Leiden.
• Merz, Ellen
“Male-male Interactions with Dead Infants in
Macaca sylvanus”. Primates, 19: 749-754.
• Miles, Lynn H.
“Me Chantek: The Development of Selfawareness
in a Signing Orangutan”. En Sue T.
Parker, Robert W. Mitchell y Mria L. Boccia (eds.),
Self-awareness in Monkeys and Apes: Developmental
Perspectives (pp. 254-272). Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press.
• Mitchell, Robert W.
“A History of Pretense in Animals and
Children”. En Mitchell, Robert W. (ed.). Pretending
and Imagination in Animals and Children
(pp. 23-42). Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press. (pp. 23-42).
• Mohnot, Suendra M.
“Some Aspects of Social Changes and
Infant-killing in the Hanuman Langur. Presbytis
entellus (Primates: Cercopithecidae), in Western
India”, Mammalia, 35: 175-198.
• Montgomery, Sy.
Walking with the Great Apes, Boston, Houghton
Mifflin.
• Mortiz, María Cristina
“Algunas ideas de Freud acerca de la religión”.
Revista Pilquen, Sección Psicopedagógica, 14 (8):
-9.
• Moss, Cynthia J.
Elephant Memories: Thirteen Years in the Life
of an Elephant Family, Chicago, University of
Chicago Press
• Muller, Zoe
“The Curious Incident of the Giraffe in the
Night”. Giraffa, 4 (1): 20-23.
• Nakamichi, Masayuki, Naoki Koyama y Alison Jolly
“Maternal Responses to Dead and Dying
Infants in Wild Troops of Ring-tailed Lemurs at the
Berenty Reserve, Madagascar”. International
Journal of Primatology, 17: 505-523.
• Patterson, Francine y Wendy Gordon
“The Case for the Personhood of gorillas”. En
Paola Cavalieri y Peter Singer (eds.), The Great Ape
Project: Equality Beyond Humanity (pp. 58-77).
Nueva York, St. Martins.
• Perry, Susan y Joseph H. Manson
Manipulative Monkeys: The Capuchins of
Lomas Barbudal. Cambridge, Harvard University
Press.
• Pettitt, Paul
The Palaelothic Origins of Human Burial.
Nueva York/Londres, Routledge.
• Poole, Joyce y Peter K. Granli
“Signals, Gestures and Behaviors of African
Elephants”. En Cynthia J. Moss, Harvey Croze J. y
Phyllis C. Lee (eds.), The Amboseli Elephants: A
Long-term Perspective on a Long-lived Mammal.
Chicago, University of Chicago Press.
• Reebs, Stéphan G.
“Fishes feigning death”. Recuoerado de www.
howfishbehave.ca
• Reich, David, Richard E. Green, Martin Kircher,
Johannes Krause, Nick Patterson, Eric Y. Durand,
Bence Viola, Adrian W. Briggs, Udo Stenzel, Philip L.
F. Johnson, Tomislav Maricic, Jeffrey M. Good, Tomas
Marques-Bonet, Can Alkan, Qiaomei Fu, Swapan
Mallick, Heng Li, Matthias Meyer, Evan E. Eichler,
Mark Stoneking, Michael Richards, Sahra Talamo,
Michael V. Shunkov, Anatoli P. Derevianko, Jean-
Jacques Hublin, Janet Kelso, Montgomery Slatkin,
Svante Pääbo
“Genetic History of an Archaic Hominin
Group from Denisova Cave in Siberia”. Nature, 468
(7): 1053-1060.
• Rendell, Luke y Hal Whitehead
“Culture in Whales and Dolphins”. The
Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 24 (2): 309-324.
• Rendu, William, Cédric Beauval, Isabelle Crevecoeur,
Priscilla Bayle, Antoine Balzeau, Thierry Bismuth,
Laurence Bourguignon, Géraldine Delfour, Jean-
Philippe Faivre, François Lacrampe-Cuyaubère,
Carlotta Tavormina, Dominique Todisco, Alain Turq,
Bruno Maureille
“Evidence Supporting an Intentional Neandertal
Burial at La Chapelle-aux-Saints”. Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences, 111 (1): 81-86
• Rodríguez-Vidal, Joaquín, Francesco d’Errico,
Francisco Giles Pacheco, Ruth Blasco, Jordi Rosell,
Richard P. Jennings, Alain Queffelec, Geraldine
Finlayson, Darren A. Fa, José María Gutiérrez López,
José S. Carrión, Juan José Negro, Stewart Finlayson,
Luís M. Cáceres, Marco A. Bernal, Santiago Fernández
Jiménez, Clive Finlayson
“A Rock Engraving Made by Neanderthals in
Gibraltar”. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, 111 (37): 13301-13306.
• Roebroeks, Wil, Mark J. Sier, Trine Kellberg Nielsen,
Dimitri De Loecker, Josep Maria Parés, Charles E.S.
Arps, Herman J. Mücher
“Use of Red Ochre by Early Neanderthals”.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,
(6): 1889-1894.
• Rossano, Matt J.
The Supernatural Selection. How Religion
Evolved, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
• Roselli, Charles E., Kay Larkin, John A. Resko, John
N. Stellflug, Fred Stormshak
“The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic
Nucleus in the Ovine Medial Preoptic Area/Anterior
Hypothalamus Varies with Sexual Partner Preference”,
Journal of Endocrinology. 145 (2): 478-483.
• Roughgarden, Joan
Evolution’s Rainbow: Diversity, Gender and
Sexuality in Nature and People, Los Ángeles,
University of California Press.
• Rumbaugh, Duane M.
“Maternal Care in Relation to Infant Behavior
in the Squirrel Monkey”. Psychological Reports, 16:
-176.
• Santa Luca, Albert P.
The Ngandong Fossil Hominids: A Comparative
Study of a Far Eastern Homo Erectus Group.
New Haven, Yale University Press (Yale University
Publications in Anthropology, 78).
• Santillán, Ana María, Lilian Mayagoitia, Jairo Muñoz,
Kenoko Kajihara, Manuel Mendoza
“Estudio longitudinal de la personalidad en
primates no humanos”. Revista Latinoamericana de
Psicología, 34 (3): 241-249.
• Santillán, Ana María, Jairo Muñoz y Humberto
Nicolini
“La medición de la personalidad en primates
no humanos”. Salud Mental, 27 (1): 50-59.
• Sargeant, Alan B. y Lester E. Eberhardt
“Death Feigning by Ducks in Response to
Predation by Red Foxes”. American Midland
Naturalist, 94: 108-119.
• Savage-Rumbaugh, Sue E. y Lewin Roger
Kanzi: The Ape at the Brink of the Human
Mind, Nueva York, John Wiley & Sons.
• Sloan, David
Darwin’s Cathedral. Evolution, Religion, and
the Nature of Society. Chicago, University of
Chicago Press.
“Testing Major Evolutionary Hypotheses
about Religion with a Random Sample”. Human
Nature, 16 (4): 382-409.
• Spikins, Penny, Holly Rutherford y Andy Needham
“From Hominity to Humanity: Compassion
from the Earliest Archaic to Modern Humans”. Time
and Mind, 3 (3): 1-24.
• Steven, James R.
“Hominid Use of Fire in the Lower and
Middle Pleistocene: A Review of the Evidence”.
Current Anthropology, 30 (1): 1-26.
• Sugiyama, Yukimaru, Hiroyuki Kurita, Takeshi
Matsui, Satoshi Kimoto, Tadatoshi Shimomura
“Carrying of Dead Infants by Japanese
Macaque (Macaca fuscata) Mothers”. Anthropological
Science, 117: 113-119.
• Taylor, Timothy
The Artificial Ape. How Technology Changed
the Course of Human Evolution. Nueva York,
Palgrave McMillan.
• Teleki, Géza
“Group Responses to the Accidental Death of
a Chimpanzee in Gombe National Park, Tanzania”.
Folia Primatologica, 20: 81-94.
• Trinkaus, Erik
The Shanidar Neanderthals. Nueva York,
Academic Press.
• Tylor, Edward B.
Cultura primitiva II. La religión en la cultura
primitiva. Madrid, Ayuso.
• Vanhaeren, Marian, Francesco d’Errico, Chris Stringer,
Sarah L. James, Jonathan A. Todd, Henk K. Mienis
“Middle Paleolithic Shell Beads in Israel and
Algeria”. Science, 312: 1785-1788.
• Viveiros de Castro, Eduardo
“Perspectival Anthropology and the Method
of Controlled Equivocation”. Tipití: Journal of the
Society for the Anthropology of Lowland South
America, 2 (1): 1-20.
• Wagner, Roy
The Invention of Culture. Chicago, University
of Chicago Press.
• Walker Michael J., Mariano V. López-Martínez, Jon
Ortega-Rodrigáñez, María Haber-Uriarte, Antonio
López-Jiménez, Azucena Avilés-Fernández, Juan Luis
Polo-Camacho, Matías Campillo-Boj, Jesús García-
Torres, José S. Carrión García, Miguel San Nicolás-del
Toro, Tomás Rodríguez-Estrella
“The Excavation of Buried Articulated
Neanderthal Skeletons at Sima de las Palomas
(Murcia, SE Spain)”. Quaternary International,
(9): 7-21.
• Warren, Ymke y Elizabeth Williamson A.
“Transport of Dead Infant Mountain Gorillas
by Mothers and Unrelated Females”. Zoo Biology,
: 375-378.
• Wilson, Edward O.
The Insect Societies. Cambridge, Belknap
Press of Harvard University.
• 1980. Sociobiología, Barcelona, Omega, Zilhão, João
“Personal Ornaments and Symbolism among
the Neanderthals”. Developments in Quaternary
Science, 16: pp. 35-49.